Clauses

(from Warriner's English Grammar, Complete Course (1977), pp. 52-73)
 

The Clause  A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and used as part of a sentence.  Clauses which can stand alone if removed from their sentences are called independent clauses. Those that do not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone are called subordinate clauses.  Back to top

Independent Clauses When removed from its sentence, an independent clause makes complete sense. Written with a capital at the beginning and a period at the end, it becomes a simple sentence. It is an independent clause only when combined in a larger sentence with one or more additional clauses, independent or subordinate.  When two or more independent clauses are joined together into a single sentence, the usual connecting words are and, but, or, nor, and for.  Examples: when the sun finally came out   which everyone in the family likes   as she had thought   Exercise on use of comma v. semi-colon in compound sentences. Back to top

Subordinate Clauses Subordinate clauses, which cannot stand alone as sentences, are used as nouns or modifiers in the same way as single words or phrases. A subordinate clause is always combined in some way with an independent clause. Examples of subordinate clauses: when the sun finally came out   which everyone in the family likes   as she had thought   Combined with an independent clause, each of these subordinate clauses plays its part in a sentence:   When the sun finally came out, we felt more cheerful.   We ordered spaghetti, which everyone in the family likes.   As she had thought, the right tire had blown out. Back to top

The Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that, like an adjective, modifies a noun or a pronoun.  Examples: The house where he was born has been made a national shrine. She is one who earned her honors. The composition, which I wrote last year, received a grade of C.   Back to top

Relative Pronouns Adjective clauses often begin with the pronouns who, whom, which, or that. These pronouns refer to, or are related to, a noun or pronoun that has come before. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that begins a subordinate adjective clause and is related to a noun or pronoun already mentioned or understood. The word to which the relative pronoun is related is its antecedent. A relative pronoun does three things: 1. It refers to a preceding noun or pronoun: Ms. Garcia is a woman whom we can trust. The joke was one that I had heard before. 2. It connects its clause with the rest of the sentence. I don’t admire anyone who acts like that. (The subordinate clause is joined to the independent clause by the relative pronoun who.) You need a watch that keeps time. (The subordinate clause is joined to the dependent clause by the relative pronoun that.) 3. It performs a function within its own clause by serving as the subject, object, etc., of the subordinate clause: The principal appointed George, who is a reliable student. (Who is the subject of the adjective clause who is a reliable student.) These are the assignments for which you are responsible. (Which is the object of the preposition for.) Show me the book that you read. (That is the object of the verb (i.e. what was read)). An adjective clause may also begin with the relative adjective whose or with the relative adverb where or when. He is a coach whose record has been amazing. (Whose, the possessive form of the relative pronoun who, functions as an adjective modifying record.) Do you remember the restaurant where we ate lunch? (Where acts as an adverb modifying ate, the verb in the clause. The antecedent is restaurant.) Back to top

The Noun Clause A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a noun. A noun clause can be used as a subject, object or predicate nominative.   Whoever wins the election will have many problems (The entire noun clause whoever wins the election is the subject of the verb will have.) This is her job. (Job is a noun used as a predicate nominative after the linking verb is.) This is what she does. (What she does is a noun clause used as a predicate nominative.) Do you know the score? (Score is a noun used as the object of the verb do know.) Do you know what the score is? (What the score is is a noun clause used as the object of a verb.) Here is a copy of my speech. (Speech is a noun used as the object of the preposition of.) Here is a copy of what I said. (What I said is a noun clause used as the object of a preposition.) A noun clause may begin with an indefinite relative pronoun- that, what, whatever, who, which, whoever, whichever. Unlike a definite relative pronoun, an indefinite relative pronoun does not have an antecedent in its sentence. He told me what he wanted. A noun clause may also begin with an indefinite relative adjective- whose, which, whatever- or an indefinite relative adverb- where, when, how, etc. I know whose car it is. I know where she went. Adjective and noun clauses are sometimes used without an introductory word. The introductory word will sometimes get dropped in usage. James Earl Jones is an actor whom I admire. James Earl Jones is an actor I admire. She says that I.M. Pei designed the building. She says I.M. Pei designed the building.   Back to top

The Adverb Clause An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that, like an adverb, modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.  In the following examples each adverb clause illustrates one of the typical adverbial functions of telling how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions.  She plays golf as though she were in a hurry. (how she plays) She plays golf whenever she can. (when she plays) She plays golf wherever she travels. (where she plays) She plays golf because she enjoys it. (why she plays) She plays golf more than I do. (how much more) She plays golf if the weather permits. (under what conditions she plays)  Adverb clauses may also modify adjectives and other adverbs.   She is confident that she will win. (The adverb clause that she will win modifies the adjective confident.) He played better than I did. (The adverb clause than I did modifies the adverb better.)  Back to top

The Subordinating Conjunction Adverb clauses begin with a word like after, because, or when that expresses the relation between the clause and the rest of the sentence. A conjunction that begins an adverb clause is called a subordinating conjunction. It joins the clause to the rest of the sentence. The following words are subordinating conjunctions. (Many may also be used as other parts of speech.) Common Subordinating Conjunctions although before than where after because so that whenever as if though as if in order that unless whether as long as provided that until while as though since when Back to top

The Elliptical (Incomplete) Clause Sometimes in our writing and our speaking, we do not complete the adverb clauses we use.  I am stronger than you (are). While (I was) waiting for the dentist, I read a magazine.   In these adverb clauses the part of the clause given in parentheses has been omitted. The missing part, however, could be readily supplied. Such incomplete clauses are said to be ‘elliptical’.  Back to top

Sentences Classified by Structure Classified according to their structure, there are four kinds of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.  1. A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.  Great literature stirs the imagination. 2. A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses.  Great literature stirs the imagination, and it challenges the intellect. Great literature stirs the imagination; moreover, it challenges the intellect.   Do not confuse the compound predicate of simple sentences with the two subjects and two verbs of compound sentences. Great literature stirs the imagination and challenges the intellect. (Simple sentence with a compound predicate.) Great literature stirs the imagination, and it challenges the intellect. (Compound sentence with two subjects and two verbs.) Independent clauses are joined by either coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs Coordinating Conjunctions: and but for or nor yet   Conjunctive Adverbs: also furthermore nevertheless therefore besides however otherwise thus consequently moreover then still 3. A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Great literature, which stirs the imagination, also challenges the reader. 4. A compound-complex sentence is a sentence that contains tow or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. Great literature, which challenges the intellect, is sometimes difficult, but it is also rewarding. (The independent clauses are Great literature is sometimes difficult and it is also rewarding. The subordinate clause is which challenges the intellect.) Back to top