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Clauses

The Clause
Sentences are composed of clauses. A clause is a grammatical unit containing both a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses present a complete thought and can exist alone as sentences. Other clauses cannot stand alone because they express only something related to the main idea, not the main idea itself. These clauses are called subordinate clauses.
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Independent Clauses(See Gilman Punctuation Rules: )

Every independent clause is a sentence in its own right, but a sentence can include more than one independent clause. Special words are used to join independent clauses together to form a compound sentence. Such words, called coordinate conjunctions, include and, or, but, so, for, and yet.

	John likes rock music, but Meredith likes jazz.
	Christine loves Italian food, and she has visited Rome twice.
	Michael is not going to class, for he has a dentist appointment.

Conquering the Comma (Powerpoint) (Purdue OWL)
Rules for Comma Usage (Darling et al)
Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses (Darling et al)

Clauses: The Essential Building Blocks (Darling et al)
Proofreading for Commas (Purdue OWL)

Conjunctive Adverbs

Ingredients of Independent Clauses (Darling et al)

Commas with Coordinating Conjunctions (Darling et al)
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences (Purdue OWL)
Commas vs. Semicolons: Exercise 1 (Purdue)
Commas vs. Semicolons: Exercise 2 (Purdue)

Quiz on Recognizing Clause Functions (Darling et al)

Recognizing Independent Clauses (Darling et al)
Recognizing Independent Clauses II (Darling et al)

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Gilman Punctuation Rules:

Subordinate Clauses

Clauses which are not independent are subordinate. They do not express a complete thought because they refer back to something in another clause or describe the situation in another clause. They do not stand alone.

	After the Roman conquest was over
	When Janet came to visit
	who had gone to the fair with Ellen

Now look how they each can be a part of a sentence that also includes an independent clause.

After the Roman conquest was over, Caesar returned to Rome

When Janet came to visit, we bought decorations for the guest room.

The boy who had gone to the fair with Ellen turned out to be a criminal.

Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
Subordinating Conjunction (Darling et al)

Conquering the Comma (Powerpoint) (Purdue OWL)
Rules for Comma Usage (Darling et al)
Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses (Darling et al)

Clauses: The Essential Building Blocks (Darling et al)
Proofreading for Commas (Purdue OWL)

Commas with Introductory Elements (Darling et al)
Commas after Introductions (Purdue OWL)
Sentence Types (Darling et al)
Clause Functions (Darling et al)
Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
Types of Sentences (Darling et al)

Sentence Punctuation Patterns (Purdue OWL)
Using Commas (Purdue OWL)

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(See

)Gilman Punctuation Rules:

The Adjective Clause (See )

Some subordinate clauses can act as adjectives within the sentence. These clauses are called adjective clauses.

	The man who was responsible for the line of forts was named Maginot.	(describes man)
	Trinity College is *where the Book of Kells* is kept**.	(describes Trinity College)
	The building, which was built in 1886, will become student housing.	(describes building)

Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
More on Relative Pronouns (Darling et al)
Notorious Confusables (which vs. that) (Darling et al)
Who, Whose, Whoever, Whomever (Darling et al)
Conquering the Comma (Powerpoint) (Purdue OWL)
Rules for Comma Usage (Darling et al)
Clauses: The Essential Building Blocks (Darling et al)

Sentence Types (Darling et al)
Clause Functions (Darling et al)
Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
Types of Sentences (Darling et al)

Quiz on Which, That, and Who (Darling et al)
Special Quiz on Forms of Who (Darling et al)
Second Quiz on Forms of Who (Darling et al)

Who (cgi) Who II (Darling et al)
Which, That and Who (Darling et al)

Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 1 (Purdue)
Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 2 (Purdue)
Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 3 (Purdue)

)Gilman Punctuation Rules:

Relative Pronouns (See )

Adjective clauses refer specifically to a noun or pronoun somewhere else in the sentence. . Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun like who, whose, or that. The term antecedent is used for the word to which a relative pronoun refers. Remember that a relative pronoun always has a grammatical function in the relative clause. Sometimes, it is the subject. (Notice that a verb will follow the relative pronoun.)

	The man who gave me the ring...
	The door that is red...

It can also be a direct object. (Notice here that a noun that is the subject of the relative clause will follow the relative pronoun.)

	The ring which the man gave me...
	The boy whom I saw...

It can also function as an indirect object or the object of a preposition.

	The man to whom I returned the ring...
	Ask not for whom the bell tolls...
	The path on which we walked...

Occasionally, relative clauses begin with a relative adjective.

I don't know whose woods these are.

They can also begin with a relative adverb

	The place where he goes at night is deep within the woods.
	Her father knows the reason why she is sick.

More on Relative Pronouns (Darling et al)
Notorious Confusables (which vs. that) (Darling et al)
Who, Whose, Whoever, Whomever (Darling et al)
Conquering the Comma (Powerpoint) (Purdue OWL)
Rules for Comma Usage (Darling et al)
Clauses: The Essential Building Blocks (Darling et al)

Sentence Types (Darling et al)
Clause Functions (Darling et al)
Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
Types of Sentences (Darling et al)

Quiz on Which, That, and Who (Darling et al)
Special Quiz on Forms of Who (Darling et al)
Second Quiz on Forms of Who (Darling et al)

Who (cgi) Who II (Darling et al)
Which, That and Who (Darling et al)

Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 1 (Purdue)
Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 2 (Purdue)
Commas with Nonessential Elements: Exercise 3 (Purdue)

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Gilman Punctuation Rules:

The Noun Clause

Sometimes, subordinate clauses are used in place of nouns as subjects, objects, or subject complements. These clauses are called noun clauses.

	Whatever happens next year will be better than what has happened this year.	(Subject)
	What goes around comes around.	(Subject)
	Here is what the archaeologist found.	(Subject Complement)
	The murderer's motivation was that the woman had blackmailed him.	(Subject Complement)
	Does he understand that Paris fell only hours ago?	(Direct Object)
	Mom eventually found what she had lost.	(Direct Object)
	He has no comprehension of what we have to do.	(Object of Preposition)
	I don't have the jar of whatever we need to glue the pot back together.	(Object of Preposition)

The relatives pronouns which begin noun clauses do not have antecedents. This type of relative pronoun is called an indefinite relative pronoun. There are also such things as indefinite relative adjectives and adverbs which begin noun clauses.

	Do you know whose house you painted?	(Direct Object)
	Where James went is highly secret.	(Subject)

The relative pronoun, adjective, or adverb isn't always used in everyday speech.

	France is a country which I love to visit.
	France is a country I love to visit.

More on Noun Clauses (Darling et al)

Dependent Clause Functions (Darling et al)
Dependent Clauses (Darling et al)
Types of Sentences (Darling et al)

The Adverb Clause (See ; Gilman Punctuation Rules:)

Subordinate clauses can also fill the place of an adverb, by modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

	He will go back to France after he graduates from university.	(When he will go back)
	The prime minister resigned because he had lost the election.	(Why he resigned)
	He will give a political speech where he can find an audience.	(Where he gives)
	The fortune teller is uncertain that your future will be bright.	(In what respect she is uncertain)
	That girls sings more melodiously than some choir girls do.	(How melodiously she sings)

Dependent Clauses (Darling et al) Subordinating Conjunction (Darling et al) Conquering the Comma (Powerpoint) (Purdue OWL) Rules for Comma Usage (Darling et al) Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses (Darling et al) Clauses: The Essential Building Blocks (Darling et al) Proofreading for Commas (Purdue OWL)

Sentence Punctuation Patterns (Purdue OWL)
Using Commas (Purdue OWL)

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The Subordinating Conjunction

Notice how all the above adverb clauses begin with a special word like after, because, where, that, or than. Words like these express the temporal, spatial, or conceptual relationship of the adverb clause to the main clause. They are called subordinating conjunctions. Some subordinating conjunctions that you might see include:

although	before	than	where
after	because	so that	whenever
as	if	though	as if
in order that	unless	whether	as long as
provided that	until	while	as though
since	when
Subordinate Conjunctions (Darling et al) Clauses (Darling et al)

Quiz on Recognizing Clause Functions (Darling et al)

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The Elliptical Clause

In everyday speaking, we often leave out bits of adverb clauses.

	I can dance better than you.	(I can dance better than you can dance.)
	I can sleep while riding a bus.	(I can sleep while I am riding a bus.)

Since everyone one knows what "than you" is referring to and who it is that is riding the bus, the parts of the sentences in parentheses are often not included. These adverb clauses are elliptical.

Elliptical Clauses (Darling et al)

Quiz on Recognizing Clause Functions (Darling et al)

Different Sentence Structures

Sentences with no subordinate clauses and only one independent clause are called simple sentences.

Norway is a very interesting country. Jean de la Fontaine wrote many fables.

Sentences with no subordinate clauses but more than one independent clause are called compound sentences.

Norway is a very interesting country, and it is readily accessible from the UK. Jean de la Fontaine wrote many fables, but many of his ideas were taken from Aesop.

Independent clauses are joined by conjunctions and adverbs like:

and	but	for
or	nor	yet
also	furthermore	nevertheless
therefore	besides	however
otherwise	thus	consequently
moreover	then	still

Remember that some sentences have more than one subject or more than one predicate but are still simple sentences because the subjects and predicates are not arranged into two separate clauses. Robert and Jane got married. (Two subjects, but still a simple sentence.) Robert got married and had kids. (Two predicates, but still a simple sentence.) Robert and Jane got married and had kids. (Two predicates and two subjects, but still simple!)

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Norway, which is ruled over by a king, is a parliamentary democracy.
After the war was over, Bruning returned to Germany.

If a sentence contains both multiple independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause, it is considered compound-complex.

The United Kingdom, which is ruled over by a queen, is a democracy, but it does not have a written constitution. When Paris was liberated, the inhabitants celebrated, for now they were free.

Sentence Types (Darling et al)

Quiz on Sentence Types (Darling et al)

Sentence-Combining Skills I (Darling et al)
Sentence-Combining Skills II (Darling et al)
Sentence-Combining Skills III (Darling et al)
Writing Concise Sentences (Darling et al)
Eliminating Wordiness (Darling et al)
Rewriting Bloated Sentences (Darling et al)
Coherence and Transitions (Darling et al)

(See

; Gilman Punctuation Rules:

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Phrases

The Phrase
The word phrase, like clause, denotes a group of words. Unlike a clause, a phrase does not have the structure of a sentence. It does not have both a subject and a verb and therefore does not express a complete thought. Phrases can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. You may have heard of prepositional phrases, participle phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, or appositive phrases. All these types of phrases are explained below.

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Prepositional Phrases (See )(Gilman Punctuation Rules:)

All prepositional phrases begin with a preposition which is then followed by a noun or a pronoun.

	to Austria	from John
	in the house	before the disaster

It is important to be able to identify the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition as the object of the prepopsition.

	from Greenland	for Uncle Jack
	with little enthusiasm	to Maria and her friend

You can use a prepositional phrase as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. When it is used as an adjective, it usually is found right after the noun it modifies. When it is used as an adverb, it usually begins the sentence.

	The boy from Bordeaux did not speak English. (adjective)
	After the war he returned to his village. (adverb)
	Near that tree is too close to the haunted house for me! (noun, subject)
Prepositions (Darling et al) Prepositional Phrases (Darling et al) Phrases (Darling et al)

Recognizing Phrase Functions
Verbal (and other) Phrases

Commas after Introductions

Recognizing Prepositions
Quiz on Prepositions
Prepositions at the Crossword
Prepositions at the Crossword II
Prepositions at the Crossword III

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(Gilman Punctuation Rules:)

Phrases Containing Verbals

Verbals are words derived from verbs. Although they can act like verbs within their own phrases, they are used as nouns or adjectives. There are three kinds of verbals. Like verbs, they each can have their own phrase. They are:

Participles
Gerunds
Infinitives

Phrases (Darling et al)
Verbals (Darling et al)

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives (Purdue)
The Dangling Modifier (Purdue OWL)

Recognizing Phrase Functions (Darling et al)
Verbal (and other) Phrases (Darling et al)

The Participle and the Participial Phrase

Some verbals which are used as adjectives are called participles.

	The growing movement for democracy ended with World War I.
	The dying man could not get out of his bed.
	The forgotten Aztec city was hidden in the jungle.

As you can see, forms of the verbs to grow, to die, and to forget modified the subjects of these three sentences. Present participles end in -ing. Examples: growing, dying, forgetting, knowing, going, leaving. Most past participles end in -ed or -en. Examples: forgotten, canned, broken. Don't be confused if you see participles used with helping verbs. In this case, they are not adjectives but part of the verb itself.

	The beach was slowly washing away.
	The sand had washed away.

A participle has a phrase if it has any objects, compliments, or modifying adverbs. In this respect, an participle phrase is just like a verb phrase. The first word is almost always the participle itself. Although it modifies a noun in the sentence, the phrase does not always precede it.

	Mournfully singing, the woman crept along the sidewalk.
	The child, rushed immediately to the hospital, survived.
	Standing in front of the cathedral, the man had a vision.

Occasionally, you may see participles used in a construction called the nominative absolute. A nominative absolute is a phrase set off from the sentence by commas, including a noun, and its modifiers - almost always participles. Nominative absolutes have no grammatical relationship to the rest of the sentence.

	The city having been captured, the army moved on.
	Everyone being out, we were surprised to see a light in a bedroom window.

Phrases (Darling et al)

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles and Infinitives (Purdue OWL)

The Gerund and the Gerund Phrase

A gerund is a verbal that always ends in -ing and is always used as a noun.

	Eating is essential for life.	(subject)
	He loves painting.	(direct object)
	They would be annoyed by my interfering.	(object of preposition)

An gerund has a phrase if it has any objects, compliments, or modifying adverbs. In this respect, an gerund phrase is just like a verb phrase.

	Quickly crossing the finish line before the other runners is the goal of any sprinter.
	My goal was always being better than Robert at sports.

Note that that gerunds should be preceded by possessive adjectives, not personal pronouns, to express its subject.

Incorrect:	He was unhappy about me going to the cinema alone.
Correct:	He was unhappy about my going to the cinema alone.

Phrases (Darling et al)

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles and Infinitives (Purdue OWL)

Gerunds and Infinitives (Darling et al)
Gerunds and Infinitives II (Darling et al)

The Infinitive and the Infinitive Phrase

The infinitive is the root form of an English verb. It is a verbal that is usually used as a noun, but also as an adjective or an adverb.

to be

to have

to do

to swim

Remember that not all groups of words beginning with "to" are infinitives. Some are prepositional phrases, like: to France, to Bill. In fact, with infinitives, unlike with prepositional phrases, the word "to" is not used.

	I made him (to) apologize.
	Let him (to) go.

An infinitive has a phrase if it has any objects!, compliments, or modifying adverbs. In this respect, an infinitive phrase is just like a verb phrase.

	My goal is to send out all the letters today.
	He has a project to finish this afternoon.
	Don't try to lift the heavy box.

An infinitive, with or without a phrase, can be used as a noun, an adverb, or an adjective.

	My goal is to become rich. (Noun acting as Subject Compliment)
	She wants to be famous. (Noun acting as Direct object)
	To travel is always enjoyable. (Noun acting as Subject)
	The way to get what you want is to be nice to everyone. (Adjective modifying "way")
	She does not have enough talent to be a Hollywood star. (Adverb modifying "enough")

Infinitives can also have subjects, like ordinary verbs. When an infinitive phrase contains a subject, it is referred to as an infinitive clause. If the subject is a pronoun, it must be in the objective case.

	She wanted me to go with her.
	I asked him to open the present.

Phrases (Darling et al)

Gerunds and Infinitives (Darling et al)
Gerunds and Infinitives II (Darling et al)

Appositives
An appositive phrase follows (or, occasionally, precedes) a noun to further explain it. It consists of a noun or pronoun and its modifiers, and is usually set off by commas. My dog, an ugly little creature, likes to sleep on my bed. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is not a large city by American standards.
Phrases (Darling et al) Paranthetical Elements; Appositives; Vocatives (Darling et al) Appositives (Purdue OWL) Colons vs. Semicolons (Darling et al)
Appositive Exercise (Purdue OWL) Recognizing Phrase Functions (Darling et al) Using Colons (Darling et al) Quizzes on Punctuation Marks (Darling et al) Sentence-Combining Skills I (Darling et al) Sentence-Combining Skills II (Darling et al) Sentence-Combining Skills III (Darling et al) Writing Concise Sentences (Darling et al) Eliminating Wordiness (Darling et al) Rewriting Bloated Sentences (Darling et al) Coherence and Transitions (Darling et al)	Related Issues: Gilman Punctuation Rules: